Cairo does not have “internal” and “pure” modifiers (or any other modifiers for that matter) like Solidity does.

Recall that marking an impl block with #[abi(embed_v0)] tells Cairo to include its functions in the contract’s ABI (Application Binary Interface), making them callable from outside the contract. Functions in this impl block must be defined in a trait that it implements (similar to interfaces in Solidity); this ensures external callers know exactly what functions are available and how to call them.

But what about functions that should not be externally callable? Cairo is capable of restricting what functions can and cannot do as well as their function visibility, just as Solidity does.

In this article, we’ll show how to accomplish the equivalent of internal, private, and pure functions in Cairo.

Internal function demonstration

Our first demonstration is an internal view function, one that can view the contract state but is not callable outside the contract.

To get started with the demo, create an empty folder called internal_demo and run scarb init inside it to initialize a new Cairo project.

Next, add a function get_balance_2x() inside src/lib.cairo, as shown below:

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// IHelloStarknet INTERFACE
#[starknet::interface]
pub trait IHelloStarknet<TContractState> {
    fn increase_balance(ref self: TContractState, amount: felt252);
    fn get_balance(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod HelloStarknet {
    use starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        balance: felt252,
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl HelloStarknetImpl of super::IHelloStarknet<ContractState> {
        // ... existing functions (increase_balance, get_balance) ...

		// NEWLY ADDED FUNCTION
		// Note: This function will throw error
        fn get_balance_2x(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.balance.read() * 2
        }
    }
}

We get a compilation error because get_balance_2x is not part of the IHelloStarknet.

As stated earlier, when implementing a trait in Cairo, the impl block can only contain the functions defined in that trait. A contract can have multiple impl blocks, and functions that are not part of the trait must be defined in separate impl blocks. This differs from Solidity, where contracts can freely add functions beyond those in the interface they implement.

However, we specifically don’t want to include get_balance_2x in the IHelloStarknet trait because that would make the function public.

The solution to the compilation error caused by including get_balance_2x inside the HelloStarknetImpl block (without adding it to the trait) is to:

• put get_balance_2x in a separate impl block
• have that impl block use a separate trait.

Add the following code inside the HelloStarknet contract module, after the HelloStarknetImpl implementation:

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// NEWLY ADDED //
#[generate_trait]
impl InternalFunction of IInternal {
    fn get_balance_2x(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.balance.read() * 2
    }
}

The complete contract is shown below with the newly added InternalFunction impl block highlighted in red:

• The name InternalFunction is completely arbitrary; it can be any name that makes sense for the contract.
• Since each impl block needs an associated trait, we name it IInternal (also arbitrary).
• We don’t need to explicitly create the trait for the internal impl. The compiler generates it automatically with the #[generate_trait] attribute.

Now if we try to access get_balance_2x from the tests (tests/test_contract.cairo),

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#[test]
fn test_balance_2x() {
    let contract_address = deploy_contract("HelloStarknet");

    let dispatcher = IHelloStarknetDispatcher { contract_address };

    let balance_before = dispatcher.get_balance();
    assert(balance_before == 0, 'Invalid balance');

    dispatcher.increase_balance(42);

    let balance_after = dispatcher.get_balance_2x();
    assert(balance_after == 42, 'Invalid balance');
}

the test will not compile, as that function is not visible publicly:

To test that the internal function works as expected, we will add another function, extern_wrap_get_balance_2x, which will be public, then access our internal function via the self variable as shown below.

Don’t forget that we also need to add this function to the interface (as seen in the red box below) since we want it to be accessible outside the contract:

The extern_wrap_balance_2x function (blue box) calls the internal function (green box) that returns twice the current balance. Here’s the full code:

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#[starknet::interface]
pub trait IHelloStarknet<TContractState> {
    fn increase_balance(ref self: TContractState, amount: felt252);
    fn get_balance(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;

    /// Retrieve 2x the balance
    fn extern_wrap_get_balance_2x(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
}

/// Simple contract for managing balance.
#[starknet::contract]
mod HelloStarknet {
    use starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        balance: felt252,
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl HelloStarknetImpl of super::IHelloStarknet<ContractState> {
        fn increase_balance(ref self: ContractState, amount: felt252) {
            assert(amount != 0, 'Amount cannot be 0');
            self.balance.write(self.balance.read() + amount);
        }

        fn get_balance(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.balance.read()
        }

        fn extern_wrap_get_balance_2x(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.get_balance_2x()
        }
    }

    #[generate_trait]
    impl InternalFunction of IInternal {
        fn get_balance_2x(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.balance.read() * 2
        }
    }
}

Add the following test to tests/test_contract.cairo below the existing tests:

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#[test]
fn test_balance_2x() {
    // Deploy the HelloStarknet contract
    // Note: deploy_contract is a helper function from the test setup
    let contract_address = deploy_contract("HelloStarknet");

    // Create a dispatcher to interact with the contract
    let dispatcher = IHelloStarknetDispatcher { contract_address };

    // check initial balance is 0
    let balance_before = dispatcher.get_balance();
    assert(balance_before == 0, 'Invalid balance');

    // Increase balance by 1
    dispatcher.increase_balance(1);

    // Call the wrapper function that uses our internal function
    // Should return 1 * 2 = 2
    let balance_after_2x = dispatcher.extern_wrap_get_balance_2x();
    assert(balance_after_2x == 2, 'Invalid balance');
}

Run the test with scarb test test_balance_2x; you should see that it passes.

To sum up: internal functions in Cairo are created by defining them in a separate impl block without #[abi(embed_v0)] and using #[generate_trait] to auto-generate the trait that the impl block implements. This keeps functions callable within your contract but hidden from external callers.

Private view and pure functions in Cairo

In Solidity, the difference between a “private” and “internal” function is that child contracts can see an “internal” function, but a “private” function can only be seen by the contract containing the function.

Cairo doesn’t have inheritance, so we have to be careful when we refer to a “private” function in Cairo.

However, a natural question arises: is it possible to “modularize” the visibility of functions? For example, in Solidity, suppose we have the following setup:

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contract A {
	function private_magic_number() private returns (uint256) {
		return 6;
	}

	function internal_mul_by_magic_number(uint256 x) internal returns (uint256) {
		return x * private_magic_number()
	}
}

contract B is A {
	function external_fun() external returns (uint256) {
		return internal_mul_by_magic_number();
	}
}

Contract B can “see” the function internal_mul_by_magic_number() because it inherits A; B cannot see private_magic_number().

However, external_fun() in B uses private_magic_number() ”behind the scenes” when it calls internal_mul_by_magic_number().

Let’s create an identical construct in Cairo to show how a function can be off-limits to other parts of the code, like how a private function works in Solidity.

Using nested modules for private functions

So far, we’ve only seen mod (”module”) as a “container” for contract functions. However, Cairo allows us to use nested modules for further modularization. We can use this pattern to achieve similar functionality to private functions in Solidity.

Below is the default contract structure when you generate a new Scarb (snfoundry) project, but with an inner mod that contains the functions internal_mul_by_magic_number() and private_magic_number().

This inner module is declared at the end of the contract, so you can scroll directly there to see the key changes:

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/// Interface representing `HelloContract`.
/// This interface allows modification and retrieval of the contract balance.
#[starknet::interface]
pub trait IHelloStarknet<TContractState> {
    /// Increase contract balance.
    fn increase_balance(ref self: TContractState, amount: felt252);
    /// Retrieve contract balance.
    fn get_balance(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_balance_6x(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
}

/// Simple contract for managing balance.
#[starknet::contract]
mod HelloStarknet {
    use starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        balance: felt252,
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl HelloStarknetImpl of super::IHelloStarknet<ContractState> {
        fn increase_balance(ref self: ContractState, amount: felt252) {
            assert(amount != 0, 'Amount cannot be 0');
            self.balance.write(self.balance.read() + amount);
        }

        fn get_balance(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.balance.read()
        }

        fn get_balance_6x(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            rare_library::internal_mul_by_magic_number(self.balance.read())
        }
    }

    // ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
    // ~ MOD INSERTED HERE ~
    // ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
    mod rare_library {
        pub fn internal_mul_by_magic_number(a: felt252) -> felt252 {
            a * private_magic_number()
        }

        fn private_magic_number() -> felt252 {
            6
        }
    }
}

Notice that neither of the functions, internal_mul_by_magic_number nor private_magic_number access the state via @self ContractState, and therefore, from the Solidity perspective, are considered pure functions.

Also note that internal_mul_by_magic_number() is marked pub but private_magic_number() does not have pub. This means that functions within rare_library can call private_magic_number(), but functions outside the module cannot. Since internal_mul_by_magic_number is marked with pub, it can be called outside the mod.

Exercise: Try calling private_magic_number() from the get_balance() function. You should get a compilation error confirming that the function is inaccessible outside its module.

Because private_magic_number() cannot be called by anything outside of the module rare_library, we can consider it a private function.

Moving the mod to a separate file

Inline mod blocks work well for small modules, but they can clutter your contract file as the module grows. When you need multiple modules, each with their own functions, keeping everything in the main contract file makes it harder to locate specific logic.

Let’s refactor our code to move the rare_library module into a separate file. This keeps the contract file focused on contract logic while isolating the library’s module implementations. We’ll continue working with the internal_demo project from the previous section.

Create a separate module file

Inside the src/ directory, create a new file called rare_lib.cairo and add the following functions:

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pub fn internal_mul_by_magic_number(a: felt252) -> felt252 {
    a * private_magic_number()
}

fn private_magic_number() -> felt252 {
    6
}

Note that since we’re in a separate file, there’s no need to wrap the functions with mod anymore; the file itself acts as the module.

Update src/lib.cairo

Now we need to update src/lib.cairo to use our new external module. Make the following changes:

• Declare the module at the top of lib.cairo

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mod rare_lib;

• Import the “internal” function we want to use:

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use crate::rare_lib::{internal_mul_by_magic_number};

• Add a new function get_balance_6x() to the implementation:

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fn get_balance_6x(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
       internal_mul_by_magic_number(self.balance.read())
   }

• Add the function to the interface trait (otherwise it won’t compile):

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#[starknet::interface]
   pub trait IHelloStarknet<TContractState> {
       fn increase_balance(ref self: TContractState, amount: felt252);
       fn get_balance(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
       fn get_balance_6x(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;  // ADD THIS LINE
   }

• Remove the inline rare_library mod that we had in the previous section (since we’ve moved it to its own file).

Here’s what the src/lib.cairo should look like:

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mod rare_lib;
/// Interface representing 'HelloContract'.
/// This interface allows modification and retrieval of the contract balance.
#[starknet::interface]
pub trait IHelloStarknet<TContractState> {
    /// Increase contract balance.
    fn increase_balance(ref self: TContractState, amount: felt252);
    /// Retrieve contract balance.
    fn get_balance(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_balance_6x(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
}

/// Simple contract for managing balance.
#[starknet::contract]
mod HelloStarknet {
    use starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};
    use crate::rare_lib::{internal_mul_by_magic_number};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        balance: felt252,
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl HelloStarknetImpl of super::IHelloStarknet<ContractState> {
        fn increase_balance(ref self: ContractState, amount: felt252) {
            assert(amount != 0, 'Amount cannot be 0');
            self.balance.write(self.balance.read() + amount);
        }

        fn get_balance(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.balance.read()
        }

        fn get_balance_6x(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            internal_mul_by_magic_number(self.balance.read())
        }
    }
}

The changes are highlighted below:

Now, add the following test case to the test file to see that get_balance_6x is multiplying the balance by the magic number, even though the functions are in a separate file:

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use starknet::ContractAddress;

use snforge_std::{declare, ContractClassTrait, DeclareResultTrait};

use internal_demo::IHelloStarknetDispatcher;
use internal_demo::IHelloStarknetDispatcherTrait;

fn deploy_contract(name: ByteArray) -> ContractAddress {
    let contract = declare(name).unwrap().contract_class();
    let (contract_address, _) = contract.deploy(@ArrayTrait::new()).unwrap();
    contract_address
}

#[test]
fn test_increase_balance() {
    let contract_address = deploy_contract("HelloStarknet");

    let dispatcher = IHelloStarknetDispatcher { contract_address };

    let balance_before = dispatcher.get_balance();
    assert(balance_before == 0, 'Invalid balance');

    dispatcher.increase_balance(42);

    let balance_after = dispatcher.get_balance();
    assert(balance_after == 42, 'Invalid balance');
}

// NEWLY ADDED //
#[test]
fn test_balance_x6() {
    // Deploy the HelloStarknet contract
    let contract_address = deploy_contract("HelloStarknet");

    // Create a dispatcher to interact with the contract
    let dispatcher = IHelloStarknetDispatcher { contract_address };

    // Verify initial balance is 0
    let balance_before = dispatcher.get_balance();
    assert(balance_before == 0, 'Invalid balance');

    // Increase balance by 1
    dispatcher.increase_balance(1);

    // Call get_balance_6x which uses the internal function
    // Should return 1 * 6 = 6 (multiplied by the magic number)
    let balance_after_6x = dispatcher.get_balance_6x();
    assert(balance_after_6x == 6, 'Invalid balance');
}

Run the test:

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scarb test test_balance_6x

You should see that it passes, confirming that our refactored modular structure works correctly.

Wrapping up

In this article we created:

• An internal view function: get_balance_2x() (can read contract state)
• An internal pure function: internal_mul_by_magic_number() (cannot access state)
• A private pure function: private_magic_number() (cannot access state)

Functions are pure when they don’t take self: @ContractState as a parameter, meaning they cannot read or write contract storage.

Note: We didn’t create a private function that can view the state. While technically possible by passing self: @ContractState to functions in nested modules, it’s not a common pattern. In practice, state-viewing functions are typically kept as internal functions (in separate impl blocks) rather than private functions (in nested modules), since internal functions already provide sufficient encapsulation for most use cases.

Summary

• To create internal functions, define a separate impl block (without #[abi(embed_v0)]) and add the #[generate_trait] attribute. This generates a trait automatically, keeping these functions internal to the contract.
• To create a pure function (one that cannot access the state), declare a mod inside the contract. Then create a pub fn inside the inner mod. This function will be accessible to the outer mod, but not anything else.
• A mod can be put in another file and imported. Only the pub functions will be visible on the outside.

This article is part of a tutorial series on Cairo Programming on Starknet